Compositions and methods for disrupting the molecular mechanisms associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative disease

ABSTRACT

Retrotransposons, operating though human-specific neurological pathways, can contribute to environment, lifestyle, and/or age-related neurodegeneration by disrupting functional mitochondrial populations within neurons. The mitochondrial disruption can occur through a number of retrotransposon-induced mechanisms that can influence the efficient and accurate transcription and/or translation of mitochondrial genes encoded in the nuclear genome, operating primarily through epigenetic processes. Alu element-related conformational changes (both subtle and major) of the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane pores can restrict or prevent the normal translocation of proteins (i.e., TOMM and TIMM complexes), ultimately contributing to mitochondrial stress, mitophagy, inflammation, and neuron and glial cell death. Compositions and methods are provided for mitigating and/or preventing Alu element-induced conformational changes to prevent and/or treat neurodegenerative disease and other diseases and disorders associated with at least one TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform including cancer and other inflammatory diseases.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/477,645 filed on Jul. 12, 2019, which is a U.S. National Stage Application of International Patent Application No. PCT/US18/13645 filed on Jan. 12, 2018, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/445,279 filed on Jan. 12, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/468,146 filed on Mar. 7, 2017, which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Dec. 28, 2021, is named 400_41_UTIL_SL.txt and is 35,050 bytes in size.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The presently disclosed subject matter is directed to compositions and methods of disrupting the molecular mechanisms associated with mitochondrial dysfunction that contribute to disease, including neurodegenerative disease.

BACKGROUND

A hallmark of human neurodegenerative disorders is the accumulation of protein aggregates (e.g., fibrils, tangles, amyloid plaques, Lewy bodies, inclusion bodies) in the brain. For example, clusters of amyloid precursor protein fragments are observed in patients with Alzheimer's Disease (“AD”). Further, alpha-synuclein molecules (i.e. Lewy Bodies) have been observed in patients with Parkinson's disease, and inclusion bodies in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and Huntington's disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction is hypothesized to play a role in the initial intra-cellular formation of these neuronal protein aggregates and subsequent inflammation and neuronal damage associated with multiple neurological disorders. It would therefore be beneficial to provide a method of disrupting the molecular mechanisms that contribute to environmental, lifestyle, stress, and/or age-related dysfunctional mitochondrial populations to help prevent the incipient formation of inflammatory protein bodies the development and progression of neurodegenerative disorders.

DNA-RNA and RNA-RNA hybridization has been utilized in a range of technologies including for nucleic acid detection and for alteration of gene expression. Antisense nucleotides, for example, disrupt gene expression by hybridizing to target RNA, thereby interfering with RNA splicing, transcription, translation, and replication. Antisense DNA has the added feature that DNA-RNA hybrids serve as a substrate for digestion by ribonuclease H, an activity that is present in most cell types. Antisense molecules can be delivered into cells, as is the case for oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs). For example, an antisense drug, VITRAVENE (for treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis), has been approved by the Federal Drug Administration, reflecting that antisense has therapeutic utility.

There remains a long standing unmet need for effective therapies to treat neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimers Disease, and other diseases and disorders related to dysfunctional mitochondrial populations. The present invention provides such compositions and methods for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease and other diseases and disorders resulting from dysfunctional mitochondrial populations.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of modulating the function, expression, or both of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide in the cells of a subject.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of preventing or treating a disease or disorder associated with at least one TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform. The disclosed method comprises administering to a subject a therapeutically effective dose of a composition comprising at least one antisense oligonucleotide that binds to a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide, thereby preventing or treating the disease or disorder. In some embodiments, the disease or disorder is a neurological disorder, such as Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), or Parkinson's disease. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is an antisense RNA molecule, an antisense DNA molecule, an interference RNA (RNAi), a micro RNA, a decoy RNA molecule, a siRNA, an enzymatic RNA, or a therapeutic editing RNA. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide has at least 50%, 75%, or 95% sequence identity to a reverse complement of the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the isoform is an Alu element-induced isoform, such as an Alu element-induced TOMM40 isoform. In some embodiments, the TOMM40 isoform comprises the target region set forth in SEQ ID NO:119. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is selected from SEQ ID NOs:1-11. In some embodiments, the composition comprising the antisense oligonucleotide is administered intraventricularly, intranasally, intrathecally, or systemically to the subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a composition comprising one or more antisense oligonucleotides, wherein the antisense oligonucleotide has at least 50%, 75%, or 95% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide is an Alu element-induced isoform, such as a TOMM40 isoform comprising the target region set forth in SEQ ID NO:119. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is selected from SEQ ID NOs:1-11. The antisense oligonucleotide can comprise one or a combination of chemical modifications comprising phosphate backbone modifications, phosphorothioate (PS) backbone modification, ribose sugar group modifications, 2′-O-methyl (2OMe) modification, 2′-O-methoxy-ethyl (MOE) modification, locked nucleic acid (LNA) modification, tricyclo-DNA (tc-DNA) modification, 2′-fluoro modification, S-constrained-ethyl (cEt) modification, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) modification, or phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) modification. The composition can further comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of reducing or eliminating the risk of neurodegenerative disease in a subject. Particularly, the method comprises modifying the Alu elements, regions immediately flanking the Alu elements, or both within one or more genes of the TOMM complex, the TIMM complex, or APOE. In some embodiments, the modifying comprises contacting the cells with one or more epigenetic regulator, such as DNA epigenetic activators, DNA epigenetic repressors, histone epigenetic activators, histone epigenetic repressors, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the modifying comprises targeted DNA mutation, targeted DNA excision, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of modulating the function, expression, or both of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide in the cells of a subject. The method comprises contacting the cells with an antisense oligonucleotide, wherein the oligonucleotide has at least 50%, 75%, or 95% sequence identity to a reverse complement of the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide, thereby modulating function, expression, or both of the isoform. In some embodiments, the modulating occurs in vivo or in vitro. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is selected from SEQ ID NO:1-11. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotide is comprised within a vector system comprising one or more vectors. In some embodiments, the isoform is an Alu element-induced isoform, such as an Alu element-induced TOMM40 isoform. In some embodiments, the TOMM40 isoform comprises the target region set forth in SEQ ID NO:119. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of measuring the risk of a neurodegenerative disease or a disorder in a subject. The method comprises determining the methylation status of one or more genes of the TOMM complex, TIMM complex, APOE gene, or associated Alu retrotransposons and comparing the methylation status with a control, thereby identifying the risk of neurodegenerative disease or disorder. In some embodiments, determining the methylation status comprises a methylation-specific PCR analysis or methylation-specific digestion analysis. In some embodiments, the comparing comprises comparing the methylation status with the status of a confirmed neurodegenerative disease or disorder, or a negative state. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of measuring the risk of neurodegenerative disease or disorder in a subject, the method comprising determining the level of A-to-I RNA editing and circular RNA production of one or more genes of the TOMM complex, TIMM complex, APOE gene, or associated Alu retrotransposons and comparing the A-to-I RNA and circular RNA status with a control, thereby identifying the risk of neurodegenerative disease or disorder. Determining the A-to-I editing and circular RNA status can comprise targeted RNA sequencing. The comparing can comprise comparing the A-to-I editing and circular RNA status with the status of a confirmed neurodegenerative disease or disorder, or a negative state. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method for treating or inhibiting a neurodegenerative condition caused by one or more TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotides in the cells of a subject. The method comprises introducing a CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing system into the cells, wherein a Cas9 endonuclease is directed to one or more Alu elements or the regions immediately flanking the one or more Alu elements within the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide in the cells of the subject by a guide RNA to produce an Alu element knockout, an Alu element mutation, or an Alu epigenetic modification. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is selected from SEQ ID NOs: 12-118. In some embodiments, the subject is a human.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The previous summary and the following detailed descriptions are to be read in view of the drawings, which illustrate some (but not all) embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 1A is a diagram of human TOMM40 gene (Chromosome 19, GRCh38/h38 assembly; nucleotides 44,891,220-44,903,689) with exons shown as black rectangles.

FIG. 1B is a diagram of the human TOMM40 gene of FIG. 1a illustrating the Alu elements within introns 6 and 9. A region of enhanced genomic instability arising from Alu element insertion events is identified.

FIGS. 2A and 2B are diagrams representing double stranded RNA structure within TOMM40 intron 6 and intron 9, respectively, resulting from Alu elements arranged in opposite orientation.

FIG. 3A is a diagram showing the amino acid sequence of normal functional TOMM40 mRNA. Ribbons indicate the formation of alpha-helices and arrows indicate the formation of beta-strands. FIG. 3A discloses SEQ ID NO: 120.

FIG. 3B is a diagram showing the amino acid sequence of Alu-induced alternative truncated isoform of TOMM40 mRNA resulting in conformational change of the TOMM40 protein. Ribbons indicate the formation of alpha-helices and arrows indicate the formation of beta-strands. FIG. 3B discloses SEQ ID NO: 121.

FIG. 4A is a protein model of normal TOMM40 protein (i.e., Tom40) structure.

FIG. 4B is a protein model of truncated TOMM40 gene with alternative gene transcripts arising from dysregulation of Alu elements that influence Tom40 protein conformation.

FIG. 5 is a model illustrating alternative isoforms of TOMM40 (i.e., Tom40 proteins) cascading into neurodegenerative disease.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are graphs showing elevated Alu insertion events across nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes within the human genome.

FIG. 7A is a diagram representing de novo Alu retrotransposition events.

FIG. 7B is a diagram representing the formation of secondary structures (inverted-repeat Alu duplexes) within pre-mRNA transcripts.

FIG. 7C is a diagram representing hypomethylation of Alu contributing to exonization. The figure represents both DNA and histone hypomethylation.

FIG. 8 is a model illustrating how Alu mediated disruption of TOMM and/or TIMM complexes, embedded within the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane, can result in neurodegenerative disease.

FIG. 8A is a diagram depicting normal function and normal pre-protein transport through the TOMM and TIMM complexes in the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane, respectively.

FIG. 8B is a diagram illustrating how Alu mediated disruption of TOMM and/or TIMM complexes can alter pre-protein transport through the outer and/or inner mitochondrial membrane. Alu-mediated disruption of the TOMM and/or TIMM complexes includes deleterious Alu mechanisms that are activated by age or stress-related modification (e.g., traumatic stress) of DNA or histone epigenetic control mechanisms (e.g., altering H3K9 histone methylation). Fluctuating epigenetic landscapes provide tissue-specific and patient-specific deleterious Alu activity.

FIG. 8C is a diagram of the brain illustrating how deleterious Alu activity cascade into a spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's, ALS, CTE, and Parkinson's disease).

FIG. 9A is a diagram representing genes of the TOMM complex that are subject to deleterious Alu activity. Black boxes identify exons within each gene and gray boxes identify Alu elements that introduce genomic instability. Therapeutic target regions are identified by dashed lines. Asterisks identify Alu elements within exons that directly alter protein function. Collectively, the deleterious Alu activity of TOMM genes contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction by destabilizing the translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane (TOMM) complex.

FIG. 9B is a diagram representing genes of the TIMM complex that are subject to deleterious Alu activity. Black boxes identify exons within each gene and gray boxes identify Alu elements that introduce genomic instability. Therapeutic target regions are identified by dashed lines. Asterisks identify Alu elements within exons that directly alter protein function. Collectively, the deleterious Alu activity of TIMM genes contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction by destabilizing the translocase of inner mitochondrial membrane (TIMM) complex.

FIG. 9C is a diagram representing the APOE gene that is subject to deleterious Alu activity. Black boxes identify exons within each gene and gray boxes identify Alu elements that introduce genomic instability. Therapeutic target regions are identified by dashed lines. Asterisks identify Alu elements within flanking regions that can influence the epigenetic regulation of APOE. The TOMM40 gene is immediately adjacent to APOE and the Alu epigenetic landscape of TOMM40 can influence the APOE promoter. Collectively, the deleterious Alu activity within and surrounding APOE contributes to altered cholesterol and lipid processing.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The presently disclosed subject matter is introduced with sufficient details to provide an understanding of one or more particular embodiments of broader inventive subject matters. The descriptions expound upon and exemplify features of those embodiments without limiting the inventive subject matters to the explicitly described embodiments and features. Considerations in view of these descriptions will likely give rise to additional and similar embodiments and features without departing from the scope of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which the presently disclosed subject matter pertains. Although any methods, devices, and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the presently disclosed subject matter, representative methods, devices, and materials are now described.

Following long-standing patent law convention, the terms “a”, “an”, and “the” refer to “one or more” when used in the subject specification, including the claims. Thus, for example, reference to “a protein” can include a plurality of proteins, and so forth.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about”. Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the instant specification and attached claims are approximations that can vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the presently disclosed subject matter.

As used herein, the term “about”, when referring to a value or to an amount of mass, weight, time, volume, concentration, and/or percentage can encompass variations of, in some embodiments +/−20%, in some embodiments +/−10%, in some embodiments +/−5%, in some embodiments +/−1%, in some embodiments +/−0.5%, and in some embodiments +/−0.1%, from the specified amount, as such variations are appropriate in the disclosed compositions and methods. Alternatively, particularly with respect to biological systems or processes, the term can mean within an order of magnitude, preferably within 5-fold, and more preferably within 2-fold, of a value. Where particular values are described in the application and claims, unless otherwise stated the term “about” meaning within an acceptable error range for the particular value should be assumed.

As used herein, the term “mRNA” means the presently known mRNA and pre-mRNA transcript(s) of a targeted gene (e.g., TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide), and any further transcripts which may be elucidated.

By “antisense oligonucleotide” is meant an RNA or DNA molecule that binds to another RNA or DNA (e.g., a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide that is mRNA, pre-mRNA, or DNA). For example, if it is an RNA oligonucleotide it binds to another RNA target by means of RNA-RNA interactions and alters the activity of the target RNA. An antisense oligonucleotide can upregulate or downregulate expression and/or function of a particular polynucleotide. The definition is meant to include any foreign RNA or DNA molecule which is useful from a therapeutic, diagnostic, or other aspect. Such molecules include, for example, antisense RNA or DNA molecules, interference RNA (RNAi), micro RNA, decoy RNA molecules, siRNA, enzymatic RNA, therapeutic editing RNA, and other oligomeric compounds that hybridize to at least a portion of the target isoform polynucleotide. As such, these compounds may be introduced in the form of single-stranded, double-stranded, partially single-stranded, or circular oligomeric compounds. The definition is further intended to include linear or circular oligomers of natural and/or modified monomers or linkages, including deoxyribonucleosides, ribonucleosides, substituted and alpha-anomeric forms thereof, peptide nucleic acids (PNA), locked nucleic acids (LNA), phosphorothioate, methylphosphonate, and the like. More specifically, the antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention can include, but are not limited to, one or a combination of chemical modifications comprising phosphate backbone modifications, phosphorothioate (PS) backbone modification, ribose sugar group modifications, 2′-O-methyl (2OMe) modification, 2′-O-methoxy-ethyl (MOE) modification, locked nucleic acid (LNA) modification, tricyclo-DNA (tc-DNA) modification, 2′-fluoro modification, S-constrained-ethyl (cEt) modification, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) modification, or phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) modification.

The antisense oligonucleotides having a sequence (i) capable of forming a stable complex with a portion of the targeted gene, or (ii) capable of forming a stable duplex with a portion of a mRNA or pre-mRNA transcript of the targeted gene. Stability of the complexes and duplexes can be determined by theoretical calculations and/or in vitro assays.

The term “reverse complement” is herein used interchangeably with the term “complement” for the purposes of the specification and claims.

As used herein, the term “TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide” encompasses DNA, RNA (comprising pre-mRNA and mRNA) transcribed from such DNA, and also cDNA derived from such RNA, coding, noncoding sequences, sense or antisense oligonucleotides. The specific hybridization of an antisense oligonucleotide with its TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide interferes with the normal function of the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide. The functions of DNA to be interfered include, for example, replication and transcription. The functions of RNA to be interfered, include all vital functions such as, for example, translocation of the RNA to the site of protein translation, translation of protein from the RNA, splicing of the RNA to yield one or more mRNA species, and catalytic activity which may be engaged in or facilitated by the RNA. The overall effect of such interference with TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide function is modulation of the expression of the encoded product or oligonucleotides.

RNA interference “RNAi” is mediated by double stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules that have sequence-specific homology to their “target” nucleic acid sequences. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the mediators are 5-25 nucleotide “small interfering” RNA duplexes (siRNAs). Small interfering RNAs that can be used in accordance with the present invention can be synthesized and used according to procedures that are well known in the art and that will be familiar to the ordinarily skilled artisan. Small interfering RNAs for use in the methods of the present invention suitably comprise between about 1 to about 50 nucleotides (nt). In examples of non limiting embodiments, siRNAs can comprise about 5 to about 40 nt, about 5 to about 30 nt, about 10 to about 30 nt, about 15 to about 25 nt, or about 20-25 nucleotides.

Selection of appropriate antisense oligonucleotides is facilitated by using computer programs that automatically align nucleic acid sequences and indicate regions of identity or homology. Such programs are used to compare nucleic acid sequences obtained, for example, by searching databases such as Gen Bank or by sequencing PCR products.

Translocases are a family of proteins that assist in moving molecules, usually across a membrane. In humans, mitochondrial translocases encode channels (e.g., β-barrel proteins) that are essential for importing proteins into the mitochondria. Mitochondria are present as organelles in eukaryotic cells and produce most of the cell's supply of ATP and are involved in several other processes (i.e., signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, control of cell division, and cell growth). The stability of mitochondrial translocases is therefore imperative for maintaining functional mitochondria populations within cells.

Neurons are especially dependent upon healthy mitochondria populations because they do not undergo active cell division, are highly metabolically active, and require seamless mitochondrial trafficking for survival. Neuronal mitochondrial populations undergo continuous turnover and are renewed though a dynamic process of fusion, fission, and biogenesis. Disruption of the renewal process can result in abnormal function and neuron death. Particularly, mitochondrial dysfunction is believed to be a major component of multiple neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD, ALS, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. The molecular mechanisms underlying the origin of mitochondrial dysfunction are believed to include non-mendelian factors, such as tissue-specific epigenetic variation (resulting from stress, traumatic stress, aging, lifestyle factors (e.g., sleep, diet, exercise) or other environmental pressures), retrotransposition of mobile elements resulting in altered gene expression, alternative gene splicing events, and/or the formation of chimeric or fused mRNA products involving genes critical to mitochondrial function.

The translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOMM) is a complex of proteins found on the outer mitochondrial membrane of the mitochondria that allow movement of proteins and pre-proteins into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion. The TOMM complex includes seven subunits—TOMM5, TOMM6, TOMM7, TOMM20, TOMM22, TOMM40, and TOMM70. Of these, TOMM40 forms a β-barrel protein that is the primary channel through which mitochondrial pre-proteins pass into the mitochondria. The fully assembled TOMM complex comprises three TOMM40 β-barrel channels arranged in a triangular pattern. The TOMM40 gene is located on human chromosome 19 and encodes 10 exons and nine introns. The term “exon” as used herein refers to gene regions that are transcribed into RNA and subsequently translated into proteins. As used herein, the term “intron” refers to gene regions that are transcribed into RNA molecules but that are spliced out before the RNA is translated into a protein. Structural variants within TOMM40 introns are statistically associated with cognitive impairment, thinning of the hippocampus, and neurodegenerative disease.

Further, the translocase of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIMM) is a complex of proteins found on the inner membrane of the mitochondria that allow movement of proteins and pre-proteins across the inner mitochondrial membrane and into the mitochondrial matrix. The primary TIMM23 complex forms an import channel that consists of three essential proteins (TIMM17, TIMM23, and TIMM50) for importing molecules into the inner mitochondrial membrane and, of these, TIMM23 is critical for channel stability. The TIMM23 gene is located on human chromosome 10 (GRCh38/hg38 human genome assembly; Chr10: nucleotides 45,972,449-46,003,734).

The efficient processing of proteins that are central to mitochondrial function depends on stable TOMM and TIMM pore formation and on the seamless trafficking of proteins between the TOMM and TIMM complexes. For this reason, mitochondria are vulnerable to molecular processes that alter TOMM and TIMM stability, especially with respect to conformational changes of the channel forming proteins TOMM40 and TIMM23. The presently disclosed subject matter focuses on disrupting those processes involving retrotransposons and/or mRNA fusion events that serve to degrade mitochondrial function in neurons and contribute to the development of sporadic neurological and neurodegenerative disorders.

Retrotransposons are mobile elements that can replicate by reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate and insert themselves into new locations across the genome. There are three classes of retrotransposons: long terminal repeats (LTRs), long interspersed elements (LINEs), and short interspersed elements (SINEs). Of these, Alu elements are a highly successful primate-specific SINE and are the most abundant mobile element in the human genome, having over a million copies that comprise approximately 11% of genomic DNA. Initially considered “junk DNA”, Alu elements are known to have profound impacts on gene splicing, gene expression, and gene stability. In addition, Alu elements have been implicated in a growing number of human diseases, including neurological disorders.

Alu elements include a high percentage of CpG islands (i.e., short stretches of DNA where a cytosine nucleotide is followed by a guanine nucleotide in the linear sequence of bases in a 5′ to 3′ direction) and are typically heavily methylated (both DNA and histone H3K9 methylation) to prevent their expression. Alu elements are approximately 300 nucleotides in length and are characterized by left and right monomers with a poly-A tail at their 3′ end. Multiple subfamilies of Alu elements have been identified within humans (i.e., AluJ, AluS, AluY) and variable rates of retrotransposition have been observed across the subfamilies. Mobilization of Alu elements is mediated by the machinery of L1 retrotransposons (a subgroup of the LINE retrotransposon family) and the length of the poly-A tail facilitates retrotransposition, with Alu transposition frequency increasing with poly-A tail length. Alu elements residing within genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II and are a part of pre-mRNA transcripts. Alu elements within pre-mRNA molecules are subject to enhanced epigenetic RNA editing (e.g., adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing) by adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR) proteins. Further, Alu elements form complex secondary structures within pre-mRNA molecules, including the formation of circular RNAs (circRNAs). Accordingly, Alu element-rich regions are susceptible to Alu element-mediated genome instability, alternative splicing events that alter protein structure/function, inhibitory pre-mRNA structures, retention and degradation of heavily A-to-I edited pre-mRNAs, and production of chimeric protein products that interfere with key cellular processes.

FIG. 1A is a diagram of the human TOMM40 gene (GRCh38/hg38 assembly; Chr19 nucleotides 44,891,220-44,903,689) with exons shown as grey rectangles. Primate-specific Alu retrotransposons have repeatedly inserted into TOMM40 introns. FIG. 1A also shows a variable deoxythymidine homopolymer repeat (poly-T; variant rs10524523, statistically associated with cognitive impairment, hippocampal thinning, and late-onset Alzheimer's disease risk) that is part of an Alu element and originated from an Alu insertion event. As shown in FIG. 1B, sixteen Alu elements have inserted themselves across TOMM40 introns 6 and 9. The dashed line below the gene diagram identifies the primary region of enhanced genomic instability of the TOMM40 gene associated with Alu elements. Age, stress, lifestyle factors (e.g, sleep, diet, exercise), and other environment related epigenetic modification (e.g., both hyper- and hypomethylation), de novo Alu element insertion events, excessive Alu A-to-I RNA editing, introduction of premature stop codons, and/or exonization of Alu elements within the region is believed to contribute to either alternative mRNA splicing events of TOMM40 or increased degradation of TOMM40 mRNAs. The arrows in FIG. 1B show Alu element orientation of insertion events across TOMM40. Alu elements having opposite orientation contribute to double stranded RNA structures impacting TOMM40 gene expression. FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate one embodiment of the double stranded RNA structure within TOMM40 intron 6 and TOMM40 intron 9, respectively, resulting from Alu elements arranged in opposite orientations.

The Alu transposons in TOMM40 introns 6 and 9 contribute to transcriptional noise through elevated non-sense mediated decay (e.g., due to enhanced A-to-I editing) and/or the production of alternative TOMM40 isoforms. Genetic variants of TOMM40 have been associated with dementia and neurodegenerative disease. Specifically, both single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short structural variants (SSV) within TOMM40 have been implicated in a number of neurological disorders, ranging from mild cognitive impairment to major neurodegenerative diseases (such as LOAD and PD). Disrupting the TOMM complex effectively triggers a mitochondrial stress response and can ultimately lead to inflammation and mitophagy, a process that exhibits devastating consequences across neurological networks.

Further, tissue-specific aging, stress, lifestyle factors (e.g., sleep, diet, exercise) and/or environmentally-associated epigenetic modification of Alu elements (i.e., both DNA and histone H3K9 methylation or acetylation) within TOMM40 introns 6 and/or 9 is believed to contribute to an increase of alternative splicing events of TOMM40 and/or to increased production of modified TOMM40 proteins thereby contributing to the establishment of dysfunctional TOMM pores (resulting in protein aggregate accumulation) and/or decreased mitochondrial populations in neurons. In addition, the Alu element-rich 3′ region of TOMM40 is unstable due to multiple Alu element insertion events that can contribute to the formation of double-stranded pre-mRNA structures (including circRNAs) and enhanced A-to-I editing of pre-mRNA molecules that effectively alters TOMM40 gene expression leading to mitochondrial stress and dysfunction.

The relative age of each Alu element and the orientation of Alu element insertion events play an essential role with respect to potential Alu element exonization and downstream recombination events that can serve to disrupt TOMM40 mRNA transcripts. Alu element-associated poly-T regions resulting from antisense insertion events (FIG. 1A) are known to destabilize gene transcription and contribute to increasing levels of mRNA degradation. Collectively, these observations identify a region of enhanced genomic instability in TOMM40 that is vulnerable to several Alu element-associated pathways proven to alter gene expression and is implicated in a growing list of human diseases.

Inverted-repeat Alu elements, such as those distributed across TOMM40 introns 6 and 9, can disrupt mRNA stability by facilitating premature transcription termination and altering A-to-I RNA editing. The Alu elements enriched across the 3′ end of TOMM40 are believed to contribute to the production of modified yet functional transcripts that escape nonsense-mediated mRNA decay and directly alter the TOMM40 protein conformation. For example, three Alu elements within TOMM40 intron 9 are associated with an alternative splicing event that results in a mRNA product of 335 amino acids in length, 26 amino acids shorter than the normal TOMM40 mRNA product. FIG. 3A is a diagram showing the amino acid sequence of normal functional TOMM40 mRNA (NCBI GenBank accession number CP_006105; 361 amino acids in length; protein strands and helices are shown in arrows and spirals). FIG. 3B is a diagram showing the amino acid sequence of Alu-induced alternative truncated isoform of TOMM40 mRNA (NCBI GenBank accession XM_005258468; 335 amino acids in length).

Predictive modeling suggests that a β-barrel protein conformation may still form from the truncated TOMM40 isoform. However, the modified form would likely display functional differences from normal TOMM40, serving to restrict the passage of pre-proteins and/or destabilizing the TOMM complex. To this end, protein products implicated in neurodegenerative disease (e.g., amyloid precursor protein) are known to lodge within, block, and accumulate at the TOMM complex. FIG. 4A is a 3-dimensional model of the normal TOMM40 protein structure. FIG. 4B is a predictive 3-dimensional model showing the potential influence of premature termination of the TOMM40 gene transcript on the TOMM40 protein structure. The 3′ end of the truncated 335 amino acid transcript coincides with the AluY retrotransposon within intron 9 of TOMM40 (as shown in FIG. 1). The regions marked with reference numerals 1, 2, and 3 identify major conformational changes to the β-barrel protein. Without being restricted to any particular mechanism of action, it is proposed that conformational changes of TOMM40 may contribute to the initial formation of inflammatory protein bodies observed in neurodegenerative disease.

Alu element-associated disruption of normal mRNA processing of TOMM40 may result in increased localization of the paralog TOMM40L to the mitochondrial outer membrane. As a result, the efficient processing of mitochondrial pre-proteins can be modified and/or the TOMM complex can be otherwise destabilized. Such a mechanism could result in the propagation of inefficient TOMM channels through mitochondrial biogenesis, fusion, and fission within individual neurons over variable time-scales, as shown in FIG. 5. This mechanism can account for the initial establishment and accumulation of intra-cellular protein bodies that are the hallmark of multiple neurodegenerative disorders.

Alu element exonization and somatic retrotransposition events of both L1 and Alu elements have been identified in multiple TOMM genes (i.e., TOMM5, TOMM7, TOMM22, TOMM40, TOMM40L), indicating that TOMM genes are actively influenced by and are vulnerable to retrotransposons, likely owing to their high transcription rates and open chromatin status. In light of these observations, the transcriptionally active ˜2,000 nuclear-encoded genes that are essential for mitochondrial function are especially vulnerable to retrotransposon disruption, particularly within energetically demanding neurons. Given this hypothesis, it would be expected that nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes would display an enrichment of mobile elements with respect to other genes. An analysis of the mobile element content of 1,145 genes that encode mitochondrial proteins as well as an additional 8,973 randomly selected protein-coding genes throughout the human genome provides statistical support for an enrichment of Alu mobile elements within and adjacent to mitochondrial genes, as illustrated in FIG. 6. Thus, transcriptionally active nuclear-encoded genes that are essential for mitochondrial function are vulnerable to deleterious retrotransposon-related mechanisms known to disrupt gene expression pathways. If operating within energetically demanding neurons, retrotransposon-related destabilization of efficient transcription and translation of mitochondrial genes would contribute to the activation of inflammatory response pathways that can cascade to neuronal tissue damage and neurodegenerative disease.

The human genome has evolved a number of mechanisms to defend against deleterious retrotransposon activity, including DNA methylation, histone methylation, and RNA degradation using miRNA-processing enzymes. With respect to Alu elements, epigenetic silencing is predominantly mediated by histone (H3K9) methylation to suppress transcription and retrotransposition. Hypomethylation (loss of the methyl group in the 5-methylcytosine nucleotide) contributes to enhanced retrotransposon activity, which in turn can increase transcriptional noise by disrupting gene expression pathways, inducing alternative splicing events and reducing mRNA stability. Genome-wide Alu element hypomethylation is part of the aging process, and global hypomethylation of Alu elements has been statistically associated with Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, osteoporosis, and many forms of cancer. Moreover, both DNA and histone methylation landscapes can be altered by both lifestyle factors (e.g., sleep, diet, exercise) and traumatic stress events (e.g., brain injury arising from concussion). Thus, there is believed to be a link between age and environment-associated epigenetic modifications of Alu elements and a range of sporadic neurological disorders and human diseases. Particularly, elevated retrotransposon activity in the human central nervous system, mediated by epigenetic regulation for beneficial neurological function and to reduce deleterious events, is accompanied by enhanced vulnerability in neurons resulting in neurological disease.

Epigenetic modification (including both hyper- and hypomethylation) of Alu elements and/or de novo Alu element insertions within (or in close proximity to) genes that are essential to mitochondrial function (such as TOMM40) are believed to contribute to mRNA instability, ultimately leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. For example, retrotransposons can influence gene splicing by de novo Alu element retrotransposon events (as illustrated in FIG. 7A), through the formation of inverted repeat Alu element duplexes within pre-mRNA transcripts (as illustrated in FIG. 7B), and through hypomethylation of Alu elements that contribute to exonization (as illustrated in FIG. 7C).

Furthermore, histone H3K9 also regulates APOE transcription. APOE (apolipoprotein E) is essential for the normal catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein constituents. Variants of the APOE gene are statistically associated with Alzheimer's disease onset. The Alu element-rich regions of TOMM40 are immediately upstream of APOE on human chromosome 19. The epigenetic interaction between Alu elements within TOMM40 and the APOE promoter (resulting from antagonistic hypo- or hyper-methylation of H3K9) is believed to influence TOMM40 gene expression and/or APOE gene expression. Thus, there is believed to be an epigenetic link between time-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction (both slowly accumulating or accelerated) and tissue-specific idiopathic neurodegenerative disease.

Recent data from single-cell genome sequencing provides evidence of unique or mosaic genomes of individual neurons arising from enhanced retrotransposon activity both during neurogenesis and throughout life. Thus, individual neurons can have differing intracellular conditions that influence gene transcription, translation, and protein formation. Mitochondrial genes encoded within the nuclear genome are particularly vulnerable to enhanced retrotransposon activity (including elevated Alu-based epigenetic RNA editing and production of Alu-based circular RNAs) given their high expression and open chromatin status within neurons. This vulnerability increases with age, stress, lifestyle factors (e.g., sleep, diet, exercise), and/or environmental conditions that alter the epigenetic landscape of neurological networks (as described above). Therefore, retrotransposons, operating though human-specific neurological pathways, are believed to contribute to environment, stress, lifestyle, and/or age-related neurodegeneration by disrupting functional mitochondrial populations within neurons (FIG. 8). The mitochondrial disruption can occur through a number of retrotransposon-induced mechanisms that can influence the efficient and accurate transcription and/or translation of the 2,000 mitochondrial genes encoded in the nuclear genome (FIGS. 6A and 6B). In light of TOMM40, it is believed that Alu element-related conformational changes (both subtle and major) of the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane pores restrict or prevent the normal translocation of proteins (i.e., TOMM and TIMM complexes), ultimately contributing to mitochondrial stress and mitophagy. The vulnerability can be amplified through mitochondrial biogenesis and downstream mitochondrial fission and fusion events, thus contributing to the initial establishment of inefficient mitochondria that increase mitochondrial stress over time, contribute to the formation of protein aggregates, and limit neuron functionality, ultimately cascading into a diseased state (FIG. 8). Under this framework, retrotransposon-mediated dysfunctional mitochondrial cascade events can manifest in different neurological tissues. The initiation of tissue-specific cascade events, operating through variable inter-cellular and intra-cellular conditions and occurring at different life stages, can ultimately result in diseased states that share similar underlying pathologies with patients displaying a spectrum of neurological impairments. Moreover, tissue-specific deleterious cascade events can originate from traumatic stress events known to disrupt retrotransposon epigenetic control mechanisms (including physical and emotional trauma).

In some embodiments, Alu-induced protein isoforms can be reduced using antisense therapy (i.e., mRNA antisense oligonucleotides). An “antisense” oligonucleotide comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a “sense” nucleic acid, e.g., complementary to the mRNA sequence of a target. Once the antisense oligonucleotide binds to the target mRNA, the associated gene is inactivated (i.e., turned off) because mRNA must be single stranded for translation to occur. In some embodiments, the target mRNA can be can be an Alu element-induced isoform of TOMM and TIMM gene products, or the APOE gene. For example, in some embodiments, the isoform can be an Alu element-induced TOMM40 isoform. The term “isoform” as used herein refers to an analog or mutant having one or more amino acid modifications at one or more amino acid positions of a natural fully-functional human protein. In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotides can span both normal sequences and Alu element sequences within TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform mRNA.

The disclosed antisense oligonucleotides can be administered to a subject or generated in situ such that they hybridize with or bind to cellular mRNA encoding the isoform to thereby inhibit translation. The hybridization can be through conventional nucleotide complementarity to form a stable duplex.

In some embodiments, the antisense nucleic acid molecule can be administered systemically and modified to target selected cells. For example, for systemic administration, an antisense molecule can be modified such that it specifically binds to a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform on a selected cell surface, e.g., by linking the antisense nucleic acid molecule to a peptide or an antibody that binds to a cell surface receptor or antigen. The antisense nucleic acid molecule can also be delivered to cells using a vector system, as would be known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

Thus, in some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a composition comprising one or more antisense oligonucleotides specific for an isoform of TOMM, TIMM, or APOE polynucleotide.

In some embodiments, a pharmaceutically acceptable amount of the disclosed antisense oligonucleotides is administered. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein refers to a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable (i.e., the material can be incorporated into a pharmaceutical composition administered to a patient without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of the composition).

Accordingly, the presently disclosed subject matter can comprise methods of modulating the function and/or expression of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform in a subject's cells or tissues. In some embodiments, the modulation can be in vivo or in vitro. In some embodiments, the method comprises contacting the cells or tissues of a subject (i.e., a human) with at least one antisense oligonucleotide, whereby the oligonucleotide has at least about 50% sequence identity (i.e., at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 99.9%) to a reverse complement of an isoform of TOMM, TIMM, or APOE, such that function and/or expression of the isoform polynucleotide is modulated in the cells/tissue.

The antisense oligonucleotides described herein can comprise any pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or any other functional chemical equivalent that, upon administration to subject (e.g., a human) is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) the biologically active metabolite or residue thereof. Accordingly, the presently disclosed subject matter includes prodrugs and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the antisense oligonucleotides disclosed herein, pharmaceutically acceptable salts of such prodrugs, and other bio equivalents. As used herein, the term “prodrug” refers a therapeutic agent that is prepared in an inactive or less active form that is converted to an active form (i.e., drug) within the body or cells thereof by the action of endogenous enzymes, chemicals, and/or conditions. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” refers to physiologically and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the disclosed compounds (i.e., salts that retain the desired biological activity of the parent compound and do not impart undesired toxicological effects thereto). For example, sodium salts of antisense oligonucleotides are useful and are well accepted for therapeutic administration to humans. The disclosed antisense oliogonucleotides can be admixed, encapsulated, conjugated or otherwise associated with other molecules, molecule structures, or mixtures of compounds.

The antisense oligonucleotides described herein can comprise one or a combination of chemical modifications to enhance stability against degradation by endo- and exonucleases and/or to improve targeting to the cells of interest. Methods for such improvement of the pharmacological profile of antisense oligonucleotides are known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Evers et al. (2015) Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 87:90-103). For example, antisense oligonucleotides can be prepared having a range of different modifications on the phosphate backbone and ribose sugar group in the case of RNA. More specifically, the antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention can include, but are not limited to, one or a combination of chemical modifications comprising phosphate backbone modifications, phosphorothioate (PS) backbone modification, ribose sugar group modifications, 2′-O-methyl (2OMe) modification, 2′-O-methoxy-ethyl (MOE) modification, locked nucleic acid (LNA) modification, tricyclo-DNA (tc-DNA) modification, 2′-fluoro modification, S-constrained-ethyl (cEt) modification, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) modification, or phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) modification.

The antisense oligonucleotides of the present invention can be administered intraventricularly, intranasally, intrathecally, or systemically to the subject.

In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotides are tagged with a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) for systemic administration, such as intravenous administration, in order to allow for passing of the blood brain barrier.

In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotides are encapsulated in exosomes for systemic administration, such as intravenous administration, in order to allow for passing of the blood brain barrier.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of measuring, reducing, and/or eliminating the risk of mitochondrial dysfunction and/or neurodegenerative disease by modifying the Alu elements and/or regions immediately flanking Alu elements within one or more genes of the TOMM complex (including the paralog of TOMM40, TOMM40L), one or more genes of the TIMM protein complex, and/or Apolipoprotein E (APOE). For example, in some embodiments, the Alu elements and flanking regions can be modified by epigenetic regulators (e.g. DNA and/or histone epigenetic activators and/or repressors), targeted DNA mutation, and targeted excision, or combinations thereof. Moreover, in some embodiments, targeted bioassays of the methylation status of one or more genes of the TOMM complex, one or more genes of the TIMM complex, the APOE gene, and/or associated Alu retrotransposons can be performed to determine neurodegenerative disease risk or progression status.

Particularly, the Alu elements within or adjacent to genes encoding proteins of the TOMM and/or TIMM complexes and/or the APOE gene can be epigenetically modified or disrupted using a therapy comprising of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas genome editing technology that can target specific DNA sequences within a given genome. CRISPR-Cas9 includes the use of a Cas9 protein and one or more guide RNAs targeting the desired sequence. In this system, the target sequence is contacted with a CRISPR-associated Cas protein and 1-2 ribonucleic acids, where the ribonucleic acids direct the Cas protein to and hybridize to the target. The target polynucleotide sequence is then cleaved by the Cas9 protein that has DNA endonuclease activity. In some embodiments, CRISPR-Cas9 mediated epigenetic repression of Alu elements is achieved by utilizing short (˜14 base pairs) single-guide (or small-guide) RNA (sgRNA) sequences that bind to DNA regions immediately flanking Alus. When combined with CRISPR-Cas9 these short sgRNA will allow for Cas9 binding without cleaving the target locus. Binding of the Cas9 complex serves to repress Alu activity. In some embodiments, epigenetic repression of Alu elements is achieved using CRISPR/dCas9-KRAB and other chromatin-modifying enzymes with guide RNA sequences targeting Alu elements within or neighboring TOMM, TIMM, and/or the APOE gene.

Targeted CRISPR-Cas9 DNA mutation or excision of Alu elements within or neighboring TOMM, TIMM, and/or the APOE gene is achieved by inducing double-strand breaks that are then repaired by native non-homologous end joining or homology-directed repair pathways, to those regions immediately flanking Alu elements. CRISPR-Cas9 guide RNAs targeting those flanking regions are provided below (Table 1).

Thus, in some embodiments, the transcriptome, genome, and epigenome of an organism can be manipulated using targeted antisense oligonucleotide and/or CRISPR/Cas9 or technologies or another technology similar to CRISPR/Cas9. For example, in some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter includes composition that can be administered to a subject. Therapeutic delivery of antisense oligonucleotides and/or CRISPR-components that target Alu related isoforms of TOMM, TIMM, or APOE genes and/or regions flanking Alu elements (as described above) can include, but are not limited to, viral vectors including adeno-associated virus (AAV), lipid-mediated delivery including liposomes and/or related lipid nanoparticles, nanogels, electroporation, and polyethylenimine mediated transfection. In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a therapeutic genome editing method for treating or inhibiting a condition (such as a neurological condition) caused by Alu retrotransposons related to TOMM, TIMM, or APOE genes and proteins. In some embodiments a method is provided of modulating the function, expression, or both of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide in the cells of a subject, the method comprising: contacting said cells with an antisense oligonucleotide, wherein said oligonucleotide has at least 50% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide, thereby modulating function, expression, or both of the isoform. The modulating can occur in vivo or in vitro. The antisense oligonucleotide can be selected from SEQ ID NOs:1-11. The antisense oligonucleotide can be comprised within a vector system comprising one or more vectors. The antisense oligonucleotide can have at least 75% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide. The antisense oligonucleotide can have at least 95% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide. The TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide can be an Alu element-induced isoform. The TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide can be an Alu element-induced TOMM40 isoform. The TOMM40 isoform can comprise the target region set forth in SEQ ID NO:119. The subject can be a human.

In some embodiments, the methylation status of Alu elements within or neighboring TOMM and TIMM genes, and/or the APOE gene, can be stabilized or restored using histone deacetylases inhibitors (HDACis) and/or thiazolidinedione compounds (TZDs) comprised of short chain fatty acids, hydroxamic acids and benzamides including but not limited to nicotinamide, VPA, sodium butyrate, TSA, SAHA, phenylbutyrate, Ex527, and benzamide ms-275. Therapeutic delivery mechanisms of Alu stabilizing HDACis and TZDs can include, but are not limited to, oral delivery, cerebrospinal delivery via lumbar puncture, lipid-mediated delivery including liposomes and/or related lipid nanoparticles, nanogels, electroporation, polymer-based particles, and polyethylenimine mediated transfection.

In some embodiments, epigenetic processes centered on Alu elements within TOMM, TIMM, and APOE pre-mRNAs and mRNAs can be measured for biomarker/epimarker analyses using targeted high-throughput sequencing technologies (e.g., ILLUMINA TECHNOLOGIES), targeted Sanger sequencing, and/or targeted single-molecule sequencing (e.g., PACIFIC BIOSCIENCES and/or OXFORD NANOPORE TECHNOLOGIES). These processes include, but are not limited to, A-to-I editing levels and/or presence or absence of circular RNAs associated with TOMM, TIMM, and/or APOE genes. Results from pre-mRNA biomarker analyses can be used to determine or quantify neurodegenerative disease risk with respect to epigenetic Alu-related pathways discussed herein.

In some embodiments, DNA and/or histone methylation status of Alu elements within or neighboring TOMM and TIMM genes, and/or the APOE gene (Table 3), can be measured for biomarker/epimarker analyses using targeted bisulfite-sequencing, chromatin immunoprecipitation high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq), single-molecule real-time sequencing (e.g. Pacific Biosciences Technologies), and/or single-molecule nanopore sequencing (e.g. Oxford Nanopore Technologies). Targeted epimarker analyses will be performed using baits or probes designed to bind to conserved regions within TOMM and TIMM genes and/or the APOE gene (coordinates provided in Table 3). In some embodiments, the biological samples required for biomarker/epimarker analyses would include peripheral blood and/or cerebrospinal fluids. The DNA and/or histone methylation status of Alu elements within and/or neighboring TOMM, TIMM, and/or the APOE gene will be used to measure and/or predict Alu-related destabilization of genes essential to mitochondrial function. In some embodiments, biomarker/epimarker analyses of Alu elements within TOMM, TIMM, and/or APOE gene will focus on individual or patient-specific Alu variation arising from maternal, paternal, and/or de novo insertion events and will include phased analyses. Results from the Alu biomarker/epimarker assay will be used to help determine or quantify neurodegenerative disease risk with respect to the Alu-related molecular pathways discussed herein.

In some embodiments, the method can be carried out in vivo or ex vivo.

The presently disclosed subject matter is not limited to neuronal mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative disease. Particularly, beyond neurodegenerative disease, mitochondrial dysfunction can underlie the origin of a wide variety of human diseases including (but not limited to) cancer (e.g., prostate, liver, brain, colon, lung, gastric, breast, leukemia, ovary, thyroid, salivary, goiter, kidney), cardiovascular disease (e.g., atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, hypertension), metabolic disease (e.g., insulin resistance, diabetes, obesity-associated metabolic syndrome, dysglycemia, dyslipidemia), inflammatory disease, and osteoporosis. Therefore, the compositions and methods provided herein to interfere with the retrotransposon or Alu-mediated molecular mechanisms applicable to nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes associated with a broad range of human diseases.

Alu-related molecular mechanisms that can disrupt the efficient transcription and/or translation of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes can include (but are not limited to) de novo Alu insertion, Alu exonization, altered RNA editing, altered adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing, premature gene translation termination, alternative gene splicing, nonhomologous recombination events, altered micro-RNA regulation, altered binding of long non-coding RNAs, hypomethylation, and hypermethylation. If operating across select tissue types (e.g., brain, heart, liver, spleen, pancreas, lung, kidney, prostate, ovary, breast, colon), the disruptive Alu mechanisms are a plausible source for human disease wherein incipient or early mitochondrial dysfunction is hypothesized. Moreover, epigenetic control mechanisms of Alu elements dissipates over time and hypomethylation of Alu elements is associated with aging and senescence. Thus, Alu-mediated disruption of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes potentially correlates with the aging process and is directly linked with age-related human disease.

Therapeutic intervention of Alu-associated mechanisms operating on nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes can be achieved by the delivery of targeted antisense oligonucleotides, modification of Alu epigenetic profiles (including flanking nucleotides; e.g., using CRISPR/Cas technology and/or pharmaceutical compounds that alter DNA and/or histone methylation), targeted excision or removal of Alu elements (e.g., using CRISPR/Cas technology), as well as the delivery of agents that alter mitochondrial biogenesis, fusion, or fission. The cited therapeutic approaches are for stabilization of gene transcription and translation (including stabilization of pre-mRNA molecules and mature RNA transcripts) of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes that are influenced by the presence of Alu mobile elements.

EXAMPLES

The following Examples have been included to provide guidance to one of ordinary skill in the art for practicing representative embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter. In light of the present disclosure and the general level of skill in the art, those of skill can appreciate that the following Examples are intended to be exemplary only and that numerous changes, modifications, and alterations can be employed without departing from the scope of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Example 1 Prevention and/or Reduction of Alu-Associated Alternative Splicing Events in TOMM40

Therapeutic modification of Alu elements within TOMM40 can be achieved using mRNA antisense oligonucleotides, targeted CRISPR-Cas9 methylation, and/or CRISPR-Cas9 removal of Alu elements in intron 6 and/or intron 9. Within intron 6, CRISPR-Cas9 targeting for targeted methylation and/or excision of Alu elements will be performed between bases 44,894,113 and 44,900,752 on human chromosome 19 (UCSC Genome Browser; assembly GRCh38/hg38). Within intron 9, CRISPR-Cas9 targeting for targeted methylation and/or excision of Alu elements will be performed between bases 44,901,330 and 44,903,034 on human chromosome 19 (UCSC Genome Browser; assembly GRCh38/hg38). Antisense oligonucleotides to reduce alternative Alu-induced TOMM40 isoforms will be designed to dually span both normal exons and Alu sequences within TOMM40 mRNA.

Table 1 illustrates nucleotide sequences of human TOMM40 antisense oligonucleotides targeting TOMM40 intron 9. Therapeutic targets include Alu-associated TOMM40 messenger RNA products. Application of antisense oligonucleotides can mediate alternative splicing events of TOMM40 by binding to and eliminating mRNA products that include retained intron 9 or exons extending into Alu retrotransposon sequences within intron 9.

Table 2 illustrates antisense oligonucleotides targeting TOMM40L (the functional paralog of TOMM40; also identified as TOMM40B) to prevent enrichment of TOMM40L proteins in neuron mitochondrial populations. Therapeutic targets consist of nine TOMM40L exons and application of antisense oligonucleotides can reduce mRNA expression of TOMM40L, thereby stabilizing the central beta-barrel channels of the translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane pore.

Table 3 illustrates nucleotide coordinates for germline insertions of Alu retrotransposons in TOMM40 and APOE on human chromosome 19 (build GRCh38/hg38). Age-related or environmentally induced demethlylation of Alu retrotransposons contributes to alternative splicing events, transcriptional noise, and genomic instability of TOMM40 and/or APOE. Targeted epigenetic modification (including DNA and/or histone modification) of Alu retrotransposons within TOMM40 and/or APOE, and associated intergenic regions, using the CRISPR-Cas9 can result in the stabilization of TOMM40 and/or APOE gene transcription.

CRISPR-Guide sequences for the 5′ and 3′ modification of the Alu complex flanking the rs10524523 polymorphism within TOMM40 intron 6 are provided in Table 4. CRISPR-Guide sequences for modification of Alu elements within TOMM40 intron 9 are provided in Table 5. The TIMM23/TOMM40 fusion mRNA antisense oligonucleotide therapy target region is set forth in Table 6.

Example 2 Measuring of Alu Methylation Status to Determine Neurodegenerative Disease Risk

DNA and or histone methylation status of Alu elements within or neighboring nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes including but not limited to genes of the TOMM and TIMM complexes, and neighboring genes implicated in neurodegenerative disease manifestation (e.g. APOE) will be measured using both system-wide whole genome sequencing approaches (e.g., bisulfate-sequencing and/or chromatin immunoprecipitation high-throughput sequencing) and targeted approaches with probes or baits designed to bind to and select regions or genes of interest (relevant coordinates provided in Table 7). Detection of elevated DNA and/or histone demethylation (i.e., enhanced or progressive hypomethylation) of Alu mobile elements within biological samples will be used to measure neurodegenerative disease risk and inform downstream therapeutic approaches. Personalized baseline biomarker/epimarker data generated from biological samples (e.g., peripheral blood, cerebrospinal fluids) across select sampling time points will identify age and/or environment related perturbations to Alu methylation status. The resulting biomarker/epimarker data will be used to measure neurodegenerative disease risk within patients across time.

TABLE 1 TOMM40 Antisense Nucleotide Sequences Targeting TOMM40 Intron 9 Oligonucleotide ID Sequence 1 TTC-CCT-GGT-AAT-GTG-GAG-GC (SEQ ID NO: 1) 2 GTT-GAG-TCA-CCT-CCT-GCC-TGT-TTC (SEQ ID NO: 2)

TABLE 2 Antisense oligonucleotides targeting TOMM40L Oligonucleotide ID Sequence 1 CTG-GCA-AAG-AAA-GCT-GTC-AAA-GAC-C (SEQ ID NO: 3) 2 CCC-AAT-GTG-TTC-CCC-ATT-TTA-GTC (SEQ ID NO: 4) 3 GAA-ATG-GCT-GCT-CAG-AAC-CTT-GTT-G (SEQ ID NO: 5) 4 CCA-GGG-CAC-TCA-TGT-GTA-TAG-TGT-G (SEQ ID NO: 6) 5 CTG-CTG-TCC-ATA-TCC-CCT-ACC-ACA-G (SEQ ID NO: 7) 6 TCC-CCA-ATC-AGG-TCA-GGA-TTT-CCT-A (SEQ ID NO: 8) 7 TGA-TAA-ACT-AGC-TCT-CCT-CCC-AGC-A (SEQ ID NO: 9) 8 TTT-GCC-CTG-TGG-TAG-TAA-CTT-GCA-T (SEQ ID NO: 10) 9 TTG-TGT-CTT-GTA-GCC-TTG-TGT-TTG-C (SEQ ID NO: 11)

TABLE 3 Nucleotide Coordinates for Germline Insertions of Alu Retrotransposons in TOMM40 and APOE on Human Chromosome 19 Alu Position Gene Name Alu Name (GRCh38/hg38) TOMM40 AluSz chr19: 44894260-44894561 AluJr chr19: 44894612-44894727 AluSz chr19: 44895530-44895846 AluJr chr19: 44896773-44896957 AluSx chr19: 44897474-44897632 AluSp chr19: 44897633-44897801 AluJo chr19: 44897805-44897922 AluSx chr19: 44898512-44898837 AluYc3 chr19: 44898863-44899150 AluJr4 chr19: 44899156-44899322 AluJb chr19: 44899323-44899614 AluJr4 chr19: 44899615-44899791 FLAM_A chr19: 44899792-44899941 AluY chr19: 44901461-44901748 AluSz chr19: 44901806-44902119 AluJb chr19: 44902208-44902495 Intergenic AluSq chr19: 44905087-44905384 (TOMM40/APOE) APOE AluSx chr19: 44906894-44907181 AluJb chr19: 44907316-44907595 AluJo chr19: 44908219-44908335 Intergenic AluSz chr19: 44909522-44909803 (APOE/APOC) AluJo chr19: 44909812-44910028 AluJo chr19: 44910030-44910238 AluSz chr19: 44910658-44910986 AluJo chr19: 44911610-44911765 AluSx chr19: 44911766-44912060 AluJo chr19: 44912061-44912193 AluSz chr19: 44912391-44912697 AluJo chr19: 44913318-44913608 Intergenic AluSp chr1: 161224707-161225006 (APOA2/TOMM40L) L1PA12 chr1: 161224666-161224706 L1PA12 chr1: 161225007-161225147 Intergenic TOMM5 L1MEh chr9: 37585151-37585614 AluSz6 chr9: 37585615-37585901 L1MEh chr9: 37585902-37586455 L1MA3 chr9: 37586456-37586823 L1MEh chr9: 37586824-37587147 AluSx chr9: 37587148-37587455 L1MEh chr9: 37587456-37587858 L1MEh chr9: 37588037-37588121 L3 chr9: 37589034-37589227 TOMM5 AluJb chr9: 37589637-37589820 L1MB7 chr9: 37589919-37590109 AluJb chr9: 37590110-37590422 L1MB7 chr9: 37590423-37590637 AluSx chr9: 37591413-37591719 AluSx1 chr9: 37591925-37592157 Intergenic TOMM5 AluSx chr9: 37592779-37592942 FLAM_C chr9: 37593232-37593330 L1MC5a chr9: 37593336-37593491 AluSx chr9: 37593508-37593816 AluSc8 chr9: 37594732-37594907 AluJo chr9: 37594908-37595199 AluSc8 chr9: 37595200-37595217 FLAM_A chr9: 37595721-37595840 AluSz chr9: 37597778-37598063 TOMM6 AluY chr6: 41788136-41788443 AluSg chr6: 41788754-41789043 Intergenic TOMM7 MER61B chr7: 22801905-22802366 SVA_D chr7: 22800210-22801864 MER61-int chr7: 22802383-2280408 AluY chr7: 22804090-22804397 MER61-int chr7: 22804398-22804800 AluSx1 chr7: 22804801-22805096 MER61-int chr7: 22805097-22805988 MER61-int chr7: 22806026-22808138 MER61B chr7: 22808141-22808598 L1MD1 chr7: 22809108-22809499 MER4A1 chr7: 22809500-22809950 L1MD1 chr7: 22809951-22810044 FLAM_C chr7: 22810280-22810410 MER4A1_ chr7: 22810814-2281140 AluSc8 chr7: 22811433-22811736 TOMM7 AluSg4 chr7: 22812815-22812861 AluSx chr7: 22814054-22814369 AluJo chr7: 22815414-22815546 AluJo chr7: 22815701-22815830 FLAM_C chr7: 22817412-22817553 L1ME4c chr7: 22817593-22817834 AluSz chr7: 22818278-22818576 AluJb chr7: 22818767-22818909 AluSx chr7: 22819373-22819629 AluJr chr7: 22820055-22820173 AluY chr7: 22821130-22821435 AluSz6 chr7: 22821444-22821768 AluSc8 chr7: 22821855-22822019 Intergenic TOMM7 FRAM chr7: 22823762-22823852 LTR8 chr7: 22823856-22824284 L1PA16 chr7: 22824507-22824572 LTR8 chr7: 22824813-22825009 FRAM chr7: 22825011-22825070 AluY chr7: 22825171-22825486 L1PA15 chr7: 22825715-22825935 Intergenic TOMM20 AluSz chr1: 235105515-235105807 AluSq2 chr1: 235106045-235106351 AluSx3 chr1: 235106699-23510692 AluJr chr1: 235107858-235108054 AluSz6 chr1: 235108055-235108267 AluJr chr1: 235108268-235108390 TOMM20 AluJb chr1: 235112353-235112622 L1MC4a chr1: 235114016-235114174 AluYe6 chr1: 235114433-235114736 AluJb chr1: 235114873-235115176 AluSg chr1: 235115348-235115653 LTR40a chr1: 235115668-235116127 AluSx chr1: 235116128-235116257 AluSc chr1: 235116258-235116549 AluSx chr1: 235116550-235116730 AluYm1 chr1: 235116854-235117164 AluSz chr1: 235117177-235117490 AluJr chr1: 235118538-235118824 AluSx1 chr1: 235120263-235120564 AluJb chr1: 235120700-235120885 AluSc chr1: 235120921-235121218 AluSg chr1: 235123206-235123490 AluSx3 chr1: 235124066-235124367 AluYm1 chr1: 235125204-235125514 AluSx3 chr1: 235125743-235126055 AluSx chr1: 235126148-235126431 AluSg chr1: 235126525-235126820 AluSx chr1: 235127942-235128184 Intergenic TOMM20 AluSx chr1: 235129381-235129673 MER41C chr1: 235129781-235130071 AluJr chr1: 235130072-235130365 MER41C chr1: 235130366-235130504 AluSx chr1: 235130505-235130801 MER41C chr1: 235130802-235130929 AluJo chr1: 235131005-235131100 LTR9D chr1: 235131104-235131223 ALuSq2 chr1: 235131229-235131533 Intergenic TOMM20L AluSx chr14: 58394215-58394518 AluJo chr14: 58394528-58394668 AluSg chr14: 58394669-58394966 AluJo chr14: 58394967-58395102 TOMM20L AluSx chr14: 58396813-58397076 AluJo chr14: 58398891-58399185 AluSx chr14: 58400125-58400449 AluSg chr14: 58400599-58400895 AluY chr14: 58401290-58401584 AluSp chr14: 58402280-58402587 AluJr chr14: 58403076-58403365 AluY chr14: 58403557-58403863 AluYa5 chr14: 58404121-58404428 AluSq2 chr14: 58404969-58405267 AluSz6 chr14: 58405520-58405799 AluSq2 chr14: 58408135-58408437 Intergenic TOMM22 AluSz chr22: 38681051-38681347 TOMM22 AluJb chr22: 38684804-38685082 TOMM70A AluSc8 chr3: 100363124-100363421 FAM chr3: 100364560-100364701 AluSz6 chr3: 100366938-100367232 AluSx chr3: 100368572-100368873 AluSq2 chr3: 100369499-100369800 AluSz chr3: 100371260-100371566 L1MB7 chr3: 100375210-100375739 AluJo chr3: 100375740-100375832 L1MB7 chr3: 100375833-100376369 AluJb chr3: 100376370-100376534 L1MB7 chr3: 100376559-100376760 AluSg chr3: 100377965-100378271 AluY chr3: 100378725-100379006 AluJo chr3: 100379342-100379609 AluJb chr3: 100379624-100379918 AluSx chr3: 100380064-10038036 AluSz chr3: 100383240-100383536 AluSz6 chr3: 100387165-100387446 FLAM_A chr3: 100387470-100387575 AluSx1 chr3: 100389760-100390064 AluSz chr3: 100390546-100390855 AluY chr3: 100390858-100391150 AluSx chr3: 100392417-100392717 L1PB3 chr3: 100392718-100392894 AluSp chr3: 100392895-100393193 L1PB3 chr3: 100393194-100393606 AluSz6 chr3: 100394360-100394434 AluSx1 chr3: 100394507-100394802 AluSc8 chr3: 100395088-100395401 AluSx1 chr3: 100395404-100395572 AluSg chr3: 100397609-100397899 AluSx chr3: 100398106-100398404 AluSx chr3: 100399002-100399294 TOMM34 FLAM_C chr20: 44944569-44944699 AluSz chr20: 44945864-44946148 AluSz6 chr20: 44947504-44947801 AluSx1 chr20: 44957197-44957473 AluJr chr20: 44957647-44957942 TIMM23 Alu chr10: 45993781-45993822 Alu chr10: 45993962-45994004 AluJb chr10: 45983753-45984043 AluJb chr10: 45994462-45994741 AluJb chr10: 45996703-45996985 AluJb chr10: 45996997-45997224 AluJb chr10: 46002189-46002468 AluJo chr10: 45978070-45978359 AluJo chr10: 45987615-45987925 AluJo chr10: 45990429-45990717 AluJo chr10: 45997533-45997825 AluJo chr10: 46000405-46000519 AluJr chr10: 45973629-45973942 AluJr chr10: 45991963-45992261 AluJr chr10: 45999142-45999334 AluJr4 chr10: 45979298-45979606 AluSc chr10: 45992552-45992855 AluSp chr10: 45991470-45991781 AluSp chr10: 45993244-45993491 AluSq2 chr10: 45975790-45976015 AluSx chr10: 45990116-45990420 AluSx1 chr10: 45977749-45978060 AluSx1 chr10: 45994060-45994379 AluSx1 chr10: 45998831-45999133 AluSx3 chr10: 45980924-45981238 AluSz chr10: 46002810-46003112 AluSz6 chr10: 45976328-45976627 AluSz6 chr10: 45993491-45993555 AluSz6 chr10: 45993617-45993657 AluY chr10: 45996079-45996372 TIMM17 AluJb chr1: 201958420-201958713 AluJb chr1: 201967556-201967835 AluJo chr1: 201961569-201961691 AluJo chr1: 201963843-201964090 AluSc8 chr1: 201964605-201964947 AluSg chr1: 201959373-201959683 AluSp chr1: 201957856-201958148 AluSq chr1: 201963075-201963374 AluSq2 chr1: 201961061-201961366 AluSx chr1: 201960756-201961047 AluSx1 chr1: 201960117-201960411 AluSx1 chr1: 201964950-201965223 AluSx1 chr1: 201968382-201968673 AluSx3 chr1: 201959205-20195937 AluSx4 chr1: 201956679-201956975 AluSx4 chr1: 201967995-201968293 AluSz chr1: 201966560-201966847 AluSz6 chr1: 201966217-201966381 AluY chr1: 201959692-201960028 AluY chr1: 201962341-201962648 FLAM_A chr1: 201966391-201966498 TIMM50 AluJb chr19: 39487267-39487445 AluJb chr19: 39487758-39487891 AluJr chr19: 39484253-39484416 AluJr chr19: 39490377-39490688 AluSc chr19: 39484951-39485261 AluSp chr19: 39490740-39491045 AluSx chr19: 39483846-39484152 AluSx3 chr19: 39487445-39487758 AluY chr19: 39482375-39482676 FLAM_C chr19: 39484763-39484905

TABLE 4 CRISPR Guide Sequences for Modification of TOMM40 Alu Complex within Intron 6 (SEQ ID NO: 12) CCTAGGAGATTGCTCGATCGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 13) AGGAGATTGCTCGATCGTGGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 14) CACGATCGAGCAATCTCCTAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 15) CCACGATCGAGCAATCTCCTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 16) TCTGTGTGCCCTCAGTCTCGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 17) GTTGGGGGCCACGAGACTGAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 18) AATCTCCTAGGGTGCAGCCCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 19) ATGACCAGAGGGGCAGACTAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 20) CCCAGACCAAGATGACCAGAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 21) GGTTGGGGGCCACGAGACTGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 22) CCCTCTGGTCATCTTGGTCTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 23) TCCCAGACCAAGATGACCAGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 24) TGACCAGAGGGGCAGACTAGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 25) CCAGACCAAGATGACCAGAGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 26) GTCTGCCCCTCTGGTCATCTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 27) GATGACCAGAGGGGCAGACTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 28) GGGCCCCTAGTCTGCCCCTCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 29) CCCCTCTGGTCATCTTGGTCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 30) GCCCTGGAGAGGAAGACACGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 31) TCCACGTGTCTTCCTCTCCAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 32) GAGAGGAAGACACGTGGAGAAGG (SEQ ID NO: 33) CTCCACGTGTCTTCCTCTCCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 34) CAAGCACTCCCTACGGTGGAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 35) GCAAGCACTCCCTACGGTGGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 36) TTTCGAGCCTAGCAGGGTACAGG (SEQ ID NO: 37) TCAGCAAGCACTCCCTACGGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 38) TGGTGTCTTTCGAGCCTAGCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 39) TCCTGTGTCCCTCCACCGTAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 40) TCCCTACGGTGGAGGGACACAGG (SEQ ID NO: 41) TTCCTGTGTCCCTCCACCGTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 42) TGTTCAGCAAGCACTCCCTACGG (SEQ ID NO: 43) GGGACACAGGAACGCAGACTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 44) GGATGGAGATGGATTCACTTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 45) GGGCTGCCTTTTCAAGCCTCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 46) ACAAGAGAACTGCCACCTTTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 47) AACAAGAGAACTGCCACCTTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 48) TTATAGGGCCAGAAGAATTGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 49) TTTGTGGCCTGTACCCTGCTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 50) GGCTTGAAAAGGCAGCCCAAAGG (SEQ ID NO: 51) TTTATAGGGCCAGAAGAATTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 52) CTCCATCCTGAGGCTTGAAAAGG (SEQ ID NO: 53) TAGGGCCAGAAGAATTGGGGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 54) GGTGTCTTTCGAGCCTAGCAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 55) CTCTTCCTCCCCAATTCTTCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 56) TGCCTTTTCAAGCCTCAGGATGG (SEQ ID NO: 57) TTTTATAGGGCCAGAAGAATTGG (SEQ ID NO: 58) GCCCTATAAAATCACATTTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 59) GGCCACAAATGTGATTTTATAGG

TABLE 5 CRISPR Guide Sequences for Modification of TOMM40 Alu Complex within Intron 9 (SEQ ID NO: 60) GGTTCCCCTACGCGGGAAACAGG (SEQ ID NO: 61) AGGTCTCGGTTCCCCTACGCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 62) AAGGTCTCGGTTCCCCTACGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 63) TCCTGCCTGTTTCCCGCGTAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 64) CCTGCCTGTTTCCCGCGTAGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 65) CTCCTGCCTGTTTCCCGCGTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 66) CCCCTACGCGGGAAACAGGCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 67) CTGTGGGCCTCCACATTACCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 68) TGTGGGCCTCCACATTACCAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 69) CTGGTAATGTGGAGGCCCACAGG (SEQ ID NO: 70) GTGGATGTGTGGGCCACCACAGG (SEQ ID NO: 71) ACAGTGTGCTGCCACCCTGTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 72) AGTGTTCCCTGGTAATGTGGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 73) CACTTGTTAAAAGGTAGGTGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 74) ACAAGTGTTCCCTGGTAATGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 75) GGAGGTGACTCAACTCTGAGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 76) GGGAACACTTGTTAAAAGGTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 77) ACACTTGTTAAAAGGTAGGTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 78) GTGTGGGCCACCACAGGTGCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 79) TCAACTCTGAGTGGATGTGTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 80) TGGTAATGTGGAGGCCCACAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 81) CTCAACTCTGAGTGGATGTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 82) CTACGCGGGAAACAGGCAGGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 83) GACAGTGTGCTGCCACCCTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 84) ACCAGGGAACACTTGTTAAAAGG (SEQ ID NO: 85) TAATGTGGAGGCCCACAGGGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 86) AACACTTGTTAAAAGGTAGGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 87) CCTCTACTATGTTTTATGCTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 88) CCAAGCATAAAACATAGTAGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 89) CAAGCATAAAACATAGTAGAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 90) AATCTGGTGGAGCATCTGATGGG (SEQ ID NO: 91) GATGGGTGTTTGGGCCAAGCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 92) GGATGGACAAAGCTCCAGCTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 93) GGAGCATCTGATGGGTGTTTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 94) TGGAGCATCTGATGGGTGTTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 95) AAATCTGGTGGAGCATCTGATGG (SEQ ID NO: 96) CCCCATTCATCTTACGTTAGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 97) TAACGTAAGATGAATGGGGCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 98) TCCACTAACGTAAGATGAATGGG (SEQ ID NO: 99) CCACTAACGTAAGATGAATGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 100) TCTTACGTTAGTGGAAACTGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 101) AGTTGTGACCTTGAAACCTCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 102) TTCCACTAACGTAAGATGAATGG (SEQ ID NO: 103) GTGTGCCTGAGATGAGGTTCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 104) GAAGACTTAAGACTGGACATTGG (SEQ ID NO: 105) GACAGGGCTGGTCACCGCTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 106) TGTCCAGTCTTAAGTCTTCTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 107) AGATGAATGGGGCAGGCTCGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 108) AGCCAGGGTAGAAGGCACTTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 109) TAAATCCAGAACCTCATCTCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 110) TATCCAAGAAGACTTAAGACTGG (SEQ ID NO: 111) GAACCTCATCTCAGGCACACTGG (SEQ ID NO: 112) TAAGTCTTCTTGGATATCTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 113) CGACCAGTGTGCCTGAGATGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 114) AAGACTTAAGACTGGACATTGGG (SEQ ID NO: 115) TGAGGCTTCCAGAGGTTTCAAGG (SEQ ID NO: 116) TATCTGTGGCTCACAGATTTTGG (SEQ ID NO: 117) AGCCTCCTGCTGAGCACTGCTGG (SEQ ID NO: 118) ATCTGTGGCTCACAGATTTTGGG

TABLE 6 TIMM23/TOMM40 Fusion mRNA Antisense Oligonucleotide Therapy Target Region AGAGACACGATATTGCACGATCTGTTATTACTACCCCATGAAACTAGAAAA CACTATACAACCAGAAATCAGAGATCGAAGCTTGTTAGTACTATATCAACC AAGTCCATTTCATTAAATGATCCAAAAATGTAATGTTGCACTGTATTCCAA ATAAAGGGTATAACAAACCAAAGTTATACTCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAGTACTCCTGGGTATACCACTGCTTAAAGCAGCTGGTATCAAACGGCAGA GTACACTGTCAGCCGTCCACCCCTGGGGAACCCAGACGTCCTCGTTGGGTT CAGGATCCTCGTAGCCCACTACCTCCAGAGCATTCACGCCTTGCCGGCCCT GGGTGGAGAGCGGTCTACACCGGTCGGCTGGAGAGGAAGGGCACATGTCAG TCTCTAGCGAGGAATACACACCTTGAAAACTGGTTGCAACGGTAACGTTGG GCCA (SEQ ID NO: 119)

TABLE 7 Human Genome Coordinates (build GRch38/hg38) for Alu Biomarker/Epimarker Analyses to Determine Neurodegenerative Disease Risk Gene Human Chromosome Nucleotide Positions TOMM5 9 37,588,413-37,592,642 TOMM6 6 41,787,662-41,789,898 TOMM7 7 22,812,632-22,822,851 TOMM20 1 235,109,336-235,128,936 TOMM22 22 38,681,948-38,685,421 TOMM40 19 44,891,220-44,903,689 TOMM70 3 100,363,431-100,401,398 TOMM40L 1 161,226,003-161,230,607 TIMM17 1 201,955,491-201,970,661 TIMM23 10 45,972,449-46,003,734 TIMM50 19 39,480,412-39,490,888 APOE 19 44,905,754-44,909,393 

1. A composition comprising one or more antisense oligonucleotides, wherein said antisense oligonucleotide has at least 50% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the antisense oligonucleotide has at least 75% sequence identity to a reverse complement of a TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide.
 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide is an Alu element-induced isoform.
 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the TOMM, TIMM, or APOE isoform polynucleotide is a TOMM40 isoform comprising the target region set forth in SEQ ID NO:119.
 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the antisense oligonucleotide is selected from SEQ ID NOs:1-11. 